Why and should African American preschoolers be suspended or expelled?

 As early childhood educators prepare to provide high-quality culturally developmentally age appropriate learning experiences for preschool age children one major issue being faced by them is challenging behaviors where they are unsure how to manage behaviors effectively. Therefore, the alternative from the consistent challenging behaviors is to suspend or expel the preschooler from the program.  Research data has shown that African American children are 2.5 times more likely to be suspended or expelled than other children and boys represent 82 percent at least once (https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/early-childhood/news/2017/11/06/442280/new-data-reveal-250-preschoolers-suspended-expelled-every-day/).  If strategies are not put in place for African American preschoolers, they are more likely to drop out of school, be incarcerated, and fail a grade or grades.  Early childhood educators must reverse these statistics to ensure African American preschoolers are given the early foundations for school success into adulthood.  There is no research that supports suspending or expelling African American preschoolers have a positive outcome.  Students who are expelled or suspended in preschool are more likely to (a) lose opportunities to learn, socialize with other children, and have positive adult models, (b) develop ongoing behavior problems, (c) view themselves negatively or not capable of learning and (d) develop negative views about learning, school, teachers, and the world around them (https://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/understanding-eliminating-expulsion-early-childhood-factsheet.pdf.

Before implementing strategies, early childhood educators need to conduct self-reflection on these three things that are (a) implicit bias, (b) adultification and (c) microaggression.  Afterward, redirect actions towards being more conscious than incorporate strategies for the reduction or elimination of suspending/expelling African American preschoolers.

 1.      Early childhood educator’s implicit bias – One factor that affects the high-quality of education for preschoolers is racial bias of African American students which is denoted through program’s discipline policies along with curricula choices that are displayed in physical environment, child-teacher interactions, child-child interactions and learning materials for engagement.  The implicit biases can take the form of being subconscious stereotypes of African American students with low expectations in particular by white teachers.  A Stanford study (https://news.stanford.edu/2015/04/15/discipline-black-students-041515/) found that African American students were treated differently by teachers when they did not follow given directives.  In 2014 the American Psychological Associated (https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2014/03/black-boys-older) research found African American boys were viewed as less innocent than their white age peers and have a greater chance of being mistaken as being older that unfortunately contributed to how their behaviors were viewed by teachers.  A study was conducted by Walter Gilliam (https://news.yale.edu/2016/09/27/implicit-bias-may-explain-high-preschool-expulsion-rates-black-children) with 135 educators who watched video clips with a black boy and girl and white boy and girl.  The teachers were asked to look for challenging behaviors.  The results showed that teachers depicted 42% of challenging behaviors exhibited were done by African American boys; however, none of the clips had challenging behaviors.   In addition, Gilliam research found “ten percent of all teachers reported having permanently expelled at least one child in the past year because of challenging behaviors” that was “2 times higher than students in grades K through 12.  As one takes a closer look at child care programs outside state prekindergarten systems … Thirty-nine percent . . . reported at least one expulsion . . . creating an expulsion rate more than 13 times higher than K through 12” (https://psychologybenefits.org/2014/12/13/preschool-expulsions/).    Therefore, early childhood educators must take a closer look at self in the mirror through conducting self-evaluation on their philosophy of being a teacher of African American preschool students and if biases are prevalent in their learning environment due to a disproportionate number of African American preschoolers are being suspended or expelled. 

2. Adultification -- The “Girlhood Interrupted:  The Erasure of Black Girls Childhood” report funded by Casey found where adults view black girls as less innocent and more adult-like than their white same age peers.  Black girls were looked upon as (a)  needing less nurture, protection, support, and comfort, (b) more independent, (c) seem older than same white peer, (d) needing less support and (e) knowing more about adult topics (https://www.aecf.org/blog/new-study-the-adultification-of-black-girls/. 

3.      3. Microaggression – The term microaggression was coined in 1970 by Chester M. Pierce where he regularly witnessed non-black American inflicting insults and dismissing toward African Americans.  According to Wikipedia.org microaggression is a term “used for brief and commonplace daily verbal, behavioral, or environmental indignities, whether intentional or unintentional, that communicate hostile derogatory, or negative prejudicial slights and insults toward any group, particularly culturally marginalized groups such as African Americans.

Here are five strategies that can be implemented in educating African American preschoolers toward lessening and/or eliminating the need to suspend/expel them. 

 

A.      Learning environment - Within the learning environment students’ behaviors influence every aspect of the classroom through appropriate and inappropriate actions.  It is the inappropriate actions of African American students that can be overwhelming for some early childhood educators and they unprepared to work with these students.  After the classroom is set up take a closer look to see if the African American culture is depicted to incorporate the true sense of classroom community.  First, conduct home visits and have casual conversations with student and family members.  Take pictures of the student that will be printed and displayed throughout the classroom in appropriate areas.   Find out from the student or family members what’s their interests to include those items, when possible.  Also, embed this knowledge in conversations with the student.  Before leaving the community take pictures of various buildings, parks and so forth that will be displayed with caption and discussed.  This shows the student that their neighborhood is important.  Second, display mirrors throughout the classroom and tape accompanying statements with pictures (if possible) like “I see a scientist”, “I see a smart student”, “I see someone who is loved” and so forth.  And third, display pictures and posters of African Americans with caption (if possible) then place in related center or area within the classroom.  Remember it is important for African American students to them to see themselves in the environment and engage in conversations with them as well.

B.      Positive affirmations - African American students need to hear our voices through the words spoken which have the power to build their self-worth; whereas, negative words tear down their overall being.  Therefore, post positive affirmation with related picture(s) which is crucial to be heard daily.  The teacher will read, expand the affirmation and then display in the classroom.  For example, read the book Riley Knows He Can by Davina Hamilton and use this for the positive affirmation to say in your head “I can do this, I can!” and view children popular PBS children’s shows like Daniel Tiger’s Neighborhood then edit song/words as needed such as “A classmate is here to help” which builds a sense of community.  Create a space where students can engage in various yoga poses for self-regulation to move them into a state of calmness.  It is important for African American students to regain behaviors of self-first when inappropriate behaviors are occurring, then rejoin group when ready.

C.      Mirrored books - Rudine Sims Bishop coined “mirror” books which are books that reflect themselves, their families and the community in positive ways(https://www.weareteachers.com/mirrors-and-windows/).  Seeing characters who like yourself builds stronger sense of self including abilities that s/he can do and pursue their goals to tell their own story.  Remember, to intergrade the storyline throughout center activities and classroom at-large.  Here are some books to add not just in the reading center only but throughout the classroom (1) Dad Who Will I Be? (b) Riley Knows He Can, (c) Stephen Curry:  The Children’s Book:  The Boy Who Never Gave Up, (d) Parker Looks Up, (e) Lola at the Library, (f) I’m A Pretty Princess and (g) Sulwe.

D.     Building positive relationships with parents/family members – First, during the initial home visit (does not have to take place in the home but wherever parents/family members are comfortable to meet).  Discuss best means of ongoing communication (e.g., text, email, class Facebook page) where you can reach out with positive comments and not just when student has exhibited inappropriate behaviors.  Take pictures with short messages of student then text to parents/family members to see.  Second, during initial engagement ask parents/family members what their goals are for their child who is enrolled in your class.  Write their goals and collaborate ways as partners for the student to accomplish them.  Third, remember to use the sandwich approach when talking with parents/family members by starting with positive comments, middle layer concerns along with ways to work collaboratively towards resolutions and last layer end with positive comments.  This is where you can end the conversation with a positive affirmation you told and discuss with student that day.  In addition, ask the parents/family members to reiterate the positive affirmations as well with the student at home and throughout the day as well.  And fourth, ask parents/family members to inform you of different events the student will participate in and attend when possible.  This is the beginning in coming an extended member of the student’s family.  Remember to take pictures that can be displayed with captions in the classroom.  Also, engage the students in conversation of the feelings, thoughts and so forth about events attended.

E.      Engaging community members – First, visit barbershops and hair salons where African American students go and solicit employers/owner to come to school and talk about what they do and/or discuss other ways to volunteer through reinforcing the African proverb “It takes a village to raise a child”.  While in the businesses, take pictures then display in classroom with captions.  And, second talk with local churches and other organization leaders for them to come volunteer on-site or share ways they can incorporate developmentally age appropriate activities such as discussing character traits (e.g., kindness, courage, compassion, humility, dependability, patience) and how to implement at school.

We must work to end disciplinary practices that result in suspending or expelling African American preschool students, but create learning environments where they feel safe, nurtured and supported ensuring their cognitive, emotional and social development through building a sense of belong to this classroom community.  There is no significant difference in behavior between African American and white students; however, African American students are punished more severely less serious actions which more subjective to teacher interpretation reflect back to implicit bias, adultification and microaggression.

 

References:

 

Black Boys Viewed as Older, Less Innocent Than Whites, Research Finds (March 6, 2014).  American Psychological Association.  Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2014/03/black-boys-older

 

Gilliam, W. S.  (December 13, 2014).  What Could Make Less Sense Than Expelling A Preschooler?   Retrieved from https://psychologybenefits.org/2014/12/13/preschool-expulsions

 

Hathaway, B.  (September 27, 2016) Implicit Bias May Help Explain High Preschool Expulsion Rates for Black Children.  Retrieved from https://news.yale.edu/2016/09/27/implicit-bias-may-explain-high-preschool-expulsion-rates-black-children

 

Malik, R. (November 6, 2017).  New Data Reveal 250 Preschoolers Are Suspended or Expelled Every Day. Retrieved from https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/early-childhood/news/2017/11/06/442280/new-data-reveal-250-preschoolers-suspended-expelled-every-day/

 

Moran, K. (July 12, 2018) What are Mirrors and Windows.  Retrieved from https://www.weareteachers.com/mirrors-and-windows/.

 

Parker, B.  (April 15, 2015).  Teachers More Likely to Label Black Students as Troublemakers, Stanford Research Shows.  Retrieved from https://news.stanford.edu/2015/04/15/discipline-black-students-041515/

 

The Annie E. Casey Foundation (July 26, 2017).  New Study:  The “Adultification” of Black Girls.  Retrieved from https://www.aecf.org/blog/new-study-the-adultification-of-black-girls

 

Understanding and Eliminating Expulsion in Early Childhood Programs (n.d.)  National Center on Early Childhood Health and Wellness.  Retrieved from https://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/understanding-eliminating-expulsion-early-childhood-factsheet.pdf

 

Wikipedia – Microaggression. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microaggression

 

 

 

 

A Tale of Two Preschoolers Exhibiting Same Behavior

 

While viewing Patrick Briggs’ YouTube recording “A tale of two dollars” made me look at the analogy of preschool age African American versus White age peers exhibiting the same behaviors and the discipline actions along with implicit/explicit bias due to race and/or skin hue.  It is critical to take a culturally responsive strengths-based approach that focus on African American culture incorporating those skillsets not viewing and being through intentionality implementing which build upon strengths, gifts, talents and their interests toward successful educational experiences as the continue in K-12 environments and beyond if desired for productive adults.

“A tale of two dollars” has the viewer to see and state even though one remained flat and other one is balled up they both have the same value and same worth.  Take the analogy to flat dollar bill is white preschooler and balled up on is an African American preschooler who are the same age with goals set to progress in domain skills.  Again, flat dollar (white student) and balled up dollar (African American student) who is seen as not having worth to make required modifications or equity work for successful outcome in your class.  Great teachers see the positive, potential and possibilities the child has inside to tap into their greatness.  Yes, every child is worth the investment but what is the reality given to African American children?

Gloria Ladson-Billings (2009), coined the term culturally responsive or culturally relevant education where teaching is informed by the content in conjunction with the experience’s children/students lived or currently living.  Also, Geneva Gay (2010) further defined culturally responsive teaching identifying primary characteristics that are (1) cultural respect, (2) responsiveness, (3) relevance, (4) rigor and (5) research. 

Based on research conducted by Walter Gilliam (2005) data revealed there are 3 B’s for high percentage of preschool age children being expelled and/or suspended.  The 3 B’s are Big, Black and Boys and I want to add the letter D for those who have been diagnosed with a Disability.  It should be denoted that African American girls are being expelled and/or suspended not far behind African American boys both higher than White and Asian age peers. 

It’s time to look back at the “The Tale of Two Dollars” through the lens of educators being culturally responsive of all children/students enrolled instead of facilitating learning from the White European textbook which most of our 2- and 4-year institutions of higher education in the education, child development and early childhood programs which in return is implemented when becoming a classroom teacher, administrator, early mental health consultant and other related fields.  Let’s take a closer look at the directive given to sit on the carpet/floor, criss cross applesauce, wit hands in your lap with eyes on me (teacher).  The white children follow the directive; however, teacher noticed the African American boys or one in particular is not following directive which is followed by teacher call child’s name repeating sitting directives and if not followed by removal from gathering space to typically a “time out” or “calm space” to get oneself together than return once ready to follow sitting rules.

Therefore, for culturally responsive should understand and comprehend the African Americans are “movement oriented and vervistic (may be considered immature and lack self-control” (Wright and Counsell, 2018, p. 34).  The suggested culturally responsive recommendations would be (1) outline square space with tape which the child can use without disturbing classmates, (2) give child tray with puzzle pieces to put together, (3) place large ball in milk crate for child to bounce on as needed, (4) give child favorite toy or stuff animal and can be added to the list of items the child likes as an option s/he can use during sit quiet time.

Wright and Counsell (2018) stated, “Black boys display vervistic behaviors in the early childhood classroom, teachers will see students with high levels of energy, who are easily excited, physically active when engaged and mentally stimulated, and ‘loud’ when excited or engage” (p. 32).  Therefore, teachers misperceive African American children actions as defiant, oppositional, misappropriate and not adhering to the traditional norm as they were taught in education coursework.

As the educator’s lens see African American preschoolers entering the classroom with negative expectations of their achievements for while enrolled seeing you as a facilitator of scaffolding learning experiences as they progress through domain skills.  Yes, let’s engrain in adult mindset we see African American children being a “promise, potential, and possibilities (Wright & Counsell, 2018, p. 2) to inspire them towards greatness into adulthood seeing their assets and strengths.  Again, to reduce/eliminate the potential of being suspended/expelled from program becoming more equitable and culturally responsive developing of curricula.  Therefore, to be effective incorporating culturally responsive strength base approach lies deeply in knowing, understanding, cultural identities of African American students and engaging with parents/family members to better facilitate learning. 

Quote:

“There is no power for change greater than a community discovering what it cares about”.  – Margaret J. Wheatley

References

A tale of two dollars retrieved from https://youtu.be/b9Auw0MzW50

Gay, G.  (2010).  Culturally responsive teaching:  Theory, research, and practice.  New York:  NY:  Teachers College Press. 

Gilliam, W. S.  (2005).  Prekindergarteners left behind:  Expulsion rates in state prekindergarten programs (Policy Brief No. 3).  New York:  Foundation for Child Development.

Ladson-Billings, G.  (2009).  The dreamkeepers:  Successful teachers of African American children (2^nd ed.). San Francisco, CA:  Jossey-Bass.

Wright, B. L., & Counsell, S. L.  (2018).  The brilliance of black boys cultivating school success in the early grades.  New York, NY:  Teachers College Press. 

Adultification – Equity in Early Childhood Education

 Adultification.  Is this a term you are familiar with consciously using or have you used unconsciously?  Wikipedia defines adultification bias as a form of racial prejudice where children of minority groups, such as African American treated as being more mature than their chronological age peers.  Yes, there are times when adults’ perceptions of children particularly minority children where they do not have all the knowledge and needed information not allowing societal or cultural stereotypes determine actions towards them. 

Personal story.  When I was approximately 12-years-old much taller than my age peers I had my sister (darker hue) and two first cousins (brothers – biracial) light brown and fair white complexions where they ranged in ages from 2- to 4-years old in a shopping cart.  While going down an aisle, two mature senior age white women stated in a loud voice for me to overhear, “look at her with three children by three different baby daddies.  That’s what they do to get welfare assistance”.  Before, I had the opportunity to respond my mom overheard them and shared her opinion of the statement with them not having true facts on making assumptions.  Well, I was so naïve of what they were saying for I came from a two-parent middle-class family (African American) household nor had heard of the term “adultification”. 

From this personal experience, it has been denoted that Black girls need less nurturing, less protection, supported less, comforted less, more independent, know more about adult topics and know more about topics of sex (Epstein, Blake, & Gonzalez, 2020, 4/23).  Therefore, those two white mature senior women saw me not as a 12-year-old girl but older than I was and overly sexual with three children and no father’s in our lives.  Yes, Black girls have the same right as their white age peers to be treated equally where they are protected, respected, and not seen older than what they are in the eyes of adults.   

When one relates adultification to Black boys it is where they are presumed to be men.  This mindset must be rewired to seeing Black boys as the children who they truly are not adult men.  Psychologist Elizabeth Loftus has coined the term misinformation effect where one changes the language of incorrect information that is used in referencing ideologies of African American boys and girls as adults exhibiting adulthood behaviors.  Therefore, early childhood educators must advocate to remove this concept of adultification viewing African American children as grown adults 

The concept of adultification dates to when the African first came to American as an enslaved person.  “Beginning in slavery Black boys and girls were imagined as chattel and were often put to work as young as two and three years old.  Subjected to much of the same dehumanization suffered by Black adults.” (Epstein & Gonzalez, 2020, 7/23).  With that being the children’s reality, they were unable to exhibit what is seen as typical developmentally age appropriate behaviors instead of being seen as more mature developing children depicting adult maturity.   

Eberhart (2019) reiterated that “categorization is a fundamental tool that our brains are wired to use” (p. 31) where statements are made and mental profiling of people color where White society is seeking for assimilation to the current majority population in the States of White norms. Look at the image below and what do you truly see?  Is it an African American girl who is wondering what she can do, who to play with or is it the taller shadow one of her being an adult exhibiting adult behaviors?  

Take time to view the picture of the African American father with his son.  Do you see the son as an adult?  No not why?  If yes, why?  Too, many educators  do not see a creative, energetic, problem-solving African American boy but see an adult whom they need to be protected from based upon behaviors exhibited in the learning environment. 

 

 

Resources 

Books 

1.      The Brilliance of Black Boys Cultivating School Success in the Early Grades by Brain L. Wright and Shelly L. Counsell 

2.      Pushout:  The Criminalization of Black Girls in School by Monique Morris 

3.      Teaching Beautiful Brilliant Black Girls by Bola Delano-Oriaran, Marguerite W. Penick-Parks, Shemariah J. Arki, Ali Michael, Orinthia Swindell and Eddie Moore 

4.      The Trouble with Black Boys: … And Other Reflections on Race, Equity, and the Future of Public Education by Pedro A. Noguera 

 

 

 YouTube Clips 

1.      What is the history of Adultification? (4:11) à https://youtu.be/BCnWieJwXrI 

2.      End Adultification Bias (4:31) à https://youtu.be/L3Xc08anZAE 

 

The following are reflective questions towards self-reflection on the topic of adultification: 

 

1.      What blind spots and bias might I have around adultification? 

2.      How can I be more of a critically conscious leader going forward not be make adultification assumptions? 

 

Conclusion 

Early childhood educators must be “color brave” which was coined by Mellody Hobson to be comfortable in advocating through their voices to speak candidly, frankly, and honestly about race removing adultification acts.  Yes, early childhood educators we are agents of change, to confront our own biases than nudge others to do the same.   

In addition, early childhood educators must be provided ongoing professional development in conjunction with coaching/mentoring as a guidance of modeling where emphasis is placed upon reduction of implicit bias and engaging all staff in the facility towards dismantling adultification perceptions of African American children.  Educators must have the opportunity to unpack their own unconscious decision-making process and construct tools to help them better reenact to facilitating learning in a culturally responsive framework where children are respectful and the lens of being childlike through building strong relationships based upon mutual trust and respect.    

References 

Dumas, M. J.  & Nelson, J. D.  (2016).  (Re)Imagining Black boyhood:  Toward a critical framework for educational research, 86 (1).  Harvard Educational Review 27-47.   

Eberhardt, J. L.  (2019).  Biased:  Uncovering the hidden prejudice that shapes what we see, think, and do.  New York:  Penguin Books. 

End adultification bias at https://youtu.be/L3Xc08anZAE  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adultification-bias 

Epstein, R., Blake, J. J., & Gonzalez, T.  (2020).  Girlhood interrupted:  The erasure of black girls’ childhood.  Retrieved from https://genderjusticeandopportunity.georgetown.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/girlhood-interrupted.pdf 

Loftus, E. F., & Palmer, J.C. (1974).  Reconstruction of automobile destruction:  An example of the interaction between language and memory.  Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 13, 585-589. 

Poppy Harlow and Hatley Draznin, “Mellody Hobson on race:  ‘We must be color brave,” CNN.com, January 22, 2018, http://money.cnn.com/2018/01/22/news/mellody-hobson-boss/files/index.hmtl 

What is the history of adultification at https://youtu.be/BCnWieJwXrI 

 

Learning Environment for African American Preschoolers – Yoga Meditation (part 2)

 Educators you must be a model of implementing different yoga poses as an important element in what is appropriate guidance to calm down and not to hurt self-and/or others in the classroom.  African American preschoolers are using their guidance lens of how teachers respond to various emotions such as frustration, aggression, anger then see how educators resolve the problem.  Again, teachers are assisting African American preschoolers learn how to recognize their own emotions, feelings and teachers expand their strategies we all experience this/ however, yoga is one way to express themselves appropriately.  African American preschoolers can detect when their bodily responses are ready to explode, they should be taught how to self-remove themselves as part of yoga strategies indicate they are building positive ways to their impulse control to restore a measure of calmness to proceed with the daily scheduled activities.   

 

African American preschoolers may be looked upon as having a high degree of energy, short attention span and easily distracted who challenge teacher’s skill set to guide them towards appropriate behaviors instead of requesting they are suspended or expelled from program.  As teachers continue to see the uniqueness in their African American preschoolers as one technique to influence appropriate behavior outcome is yoga. For African American preschoolers calming themselves is part of self-regulation.  Self-regulation refers to controlling impulses, tolerating frustrations, and postponing immediate gratification (Marion, 2003).  Yes, impulse control is to stop and think through a problem rather than doing the action which first comes to mind. 

 

At circle time have a deck of yoga pose cards where either the early childhood educator has researched or checkout Kids Yoga Stories Learn, Be Active and Have fun at https://www.kidsyogastories.com/ for African American preschoolers to select one as a routine.  Then early childhood educators can place and/or display different yoga poses in calm/cozy areas or throughout the classroom and school building so as African American students need to incorporate yoga pose reminders at eye level to regroup their emotions then to regain entry to circle and/or large group times along with throughout the day.

Yoga is a way to help children, educators and non-education staff to self-regulate back to a calm state.  Keep in mind when African American preschoolers have trouble with self-regulation some of the behaviors may be disruptive, unsafe for themselves or others in the surrounding space.  Therefore, various yoga poses will help African American preschoolers reset to manage their own emotions and behavior outcome to regain behavior of self and classroom at-large (go to https://childhood101.com/yoga-ideas-for-kids/ to print free yoga posters.    

Chair Yoga 

Educators, if you are pondering how to incorporate space to introduce chair yoga with all students and particularly African American preschoolers.  Yes, chair yoga is the techniques to incorporate movement, breathing, mindfulness and relaxation to become re-centered for appropriate emotional-social behaviors.  Dissertation research conducted by Dr. Ilana Nankins has created Breathe For Change to empower educators through various techniques of chair yoga.  The YouTube clip, “Chair yoga for slowing down – 10 minute kids yoga ed – ages 3-12” (https://youtu.be/Pbhr0TMmg91) to assist in multiple ways to incorporate in chair yoga.   

 

Yoga books 

The reading and displaying yoga books not only in the reading center but throughout the learning environment.  Also, pictures of yoga poses can be displayed throughout as well reminding African American preschoolers when they feel, or body give signs they are ready to lose control they can select a yoga pose to start so to regain control of the situation.  Here are some books that can be rotated throughout the school year related to yoga are as following: 

1.     Good Morning Yoga by Mariam Gates

2.     Emily’s Day in the Desert by Gisselle Shardlow

3.     Yoga and Mindfulness by Jennifer Cohen Harper

4.     Yoga Bear Simple Poses for Little Ones by Sarah Jane Hinder

5.     Yoga for Children by Lisa Flynn

6.     1 2 3 African Safari by Gisselle Shardlow 

Conclusion

The overall process of yoga processes to be instructed with African American preschooler’s guidance strategies whether yoga poses in large group, small group or individual, discipline methods to stay in control of their actions behaving within the guidelines of the learning environment and culturally appropriate strategies that effect self-esteem and problem solving towards resolution. 

 

References

Breathe for change.  Retrieved from https://www.breatheforchange.com/about 

 

Chair yoga for slowing down – 10 minute kids yoga ed – ages 3 -12 at https://youtu.be/Pbhr0TMmg91. 

https://childhood101.com/yoga-ideas-for-kids/

https://www.kidsyogastories.com/

Marion, M.  (2003).  Guidance of young children (6^th ed.).  Upper Saddle River, NJ:  Merrill/Prentice Hall.